Cross Denominational Mission
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Jehovah's
Witnesses are members of an international Christian 'new religious'
movement, whose adherents believe it to be the restoration of
first-century Christianity. The religion was developed in response “to
what they saw as compromise and corruption in mainstream Christianity.”
They dispute doctrines such as the Trinity, hellfire, immortality of
the soul, and clergy-laity divisions as illegitimate and inaccurate
additions to the original Christian teachings.
The name "Jehovah’s
Witnesses" is based on Isaiah 43:10, and was adopted in 1931. The
Watchtower Society has been publishing religious materials since the
late 19th century; its most widely known publications are the magazines
The Watchtower and Awake! Jehovah's Witnesses are governed by their
understanding of Scriptural laws and principles from the Bible as
interpreted by their Governing Body. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society
of New York, Inc. is a legal entity used by Jehovah’s Witnesses for
their ministry work.
Jehovah’s Witnesses count as adherents the
number of those attending their meetings, and they also count as
members those who report time preaching each month. There are about 7
million members and over 17 million adherent, meaning 24 million have a
connection to this religion.
A principal Witness teaching is the use
of a personal name for God, Jehovah, and the belief that making this
name known to others is an important part of worship. They believe that
Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world
by the first man, Adam, opening the way for the hope of everlasting
life for mankind, and that 144,000 people will receive immortal life in
heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during
the Millennial Reign. Witnesses believe that during the imminent war of
Armageddon, the wicked will be destroyed, and survivors, along with
millions of others who will be resurrected, will form a new earthly
society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of
living forever in an earthly paradise.
History
Jehovah's
Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as Bible
Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell
(1852 - 1916). Various splinter groups arose after Russell's death,
particularly with the beginning of the presidency of Russell's
successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Those who remained supportive of
the Watchtower Society, in 1931 came to adopt the name Jehovah's
Witnesses, under Rutherford's leadership. Those who did not
support Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups which have
retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible
Students" as a formal name for their religion.
In the early 1870s,
Russell organized a Bible study group composed mostly of Second
Adventists (a group that arose after the Millerite Great
Disappointment) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA. Interest in Bible
prophecy was sparked by Jonas Wendell amongst others. In 1876, Russell
met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's eschatology
(things that will happen when Christ returns to Earth - the 'Last
Things'). Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873,
and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874.
Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ
had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874. They differed from most Second
Adventists, teaching that all mankind descending from Adam would be
given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth. In 1877, Barbour and
Russell jointly published the book The Three Worlds expounding their
views. A gathering of the saints to heaven was expected for 1878 and
the year 1914 was to see the end of Gentile control of the city of
Jerusalem and the final end of the rule of human governments, marking a
forty-year period from 1874. By 1877, a separation between the
Barbour-Russell group and the Advent Christian denomination was
apparent:
In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept
of substitutionary atonement and he began publishing his own magazine,
Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The
Watchtower). After the break-up, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's
eschatological views. He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the
traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the
Trinity. In 1881 he formed the legal entity which developed into the
non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of
Pennsylvania (headquarters are in New York City). In 1884, it was
incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume
series, Studies in the Scriptures. Early editions declared that 1799
marked the beginning of the "time of the end"; Jesus’ second coming
occurred invisibly in 1874 as marked by the lengths of the internal
passages of the great pyramid of Egypt; the great pyramid at Gizeh is
God's Stone Witness and Prophet; Pleiades is the place of the eternal
throne of God; and that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.
Various statements assuring the accuracy and authority of their
predictions were issued, such as "We see no reason for changing the
figures — nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe,
God’s dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the
date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."
In contrast, Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not
prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises . . . We do not even
aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our
calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you,
leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to
them." In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students
Association in the United Kingdom.
Following Russell's
death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to
supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in
Russell's Last Will and Testament. On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942)(also
known as "Judge" Rutherford) was elected second President of the Watch
Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between
Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the
Society. Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The
Finished Mystery was released to the headquarters staff in Brooklyn.
Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four
directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not
been legally elected. The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral
Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal.
Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of
these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the
years 1918, 1920 and 1925.
The Finished Mystery, published in
1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant
clergy and Christian involvement in war. Citing this book, the United
States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of
directors for violating the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were
found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March
1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released
from prison. The charges were later dropped. Patriotic fervor during
World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students both in America
and in Europe.
An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in
1922. The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in
doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of
90,434 in 1925 down to 17,380 in 1928, due to (i) the previous power
struggle, (ii) the failed predictions for the year 1925, and (iii) the
evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with
Russell's views. By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's
presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days"
instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology. The
editorial committee was disbanded so Rutherford could have the final
say of what went into Watchtower publications. The offices of
elders and deacons were also discontinued at this time with all
"servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.
Hitler's
Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in
concentration camps - their identifying badge was a purple
triangle. In a book on Jehovah's Witnesses under the Nazi regime,
Hans Hesse commented: "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent
to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so
termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be
freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their
faith". During this time, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in
America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because
they were perceived as being against the war effort.
Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.
Nathan
Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower
Society. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the
Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the
Theocratic Ministry School to train members for preaching and teaching
at the congregational level. Significant United States Supreme Court
victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for
Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of
these rights for others. In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled
in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school
children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the
flag.
Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the
leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal
translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Also
produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom
Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary
(Aid to Bible Understanding). The offices of elder and ministerial
servant (deacon) were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with
appointments being made from headquarters. Membership rose from 115,000
to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency.
During the 1960s and
early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and
at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign
might begin by 1975. The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the
secular media at the time. From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in
membership following the failure of this prediction. In 1976, the
leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the
presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses of
the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick
William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since
1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the
Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower
publications. Witnesses no longer teach that the generation of people
alive in 1914 will survive until Armageddon, but are encouraged not to
lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment" In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.
Demographics
Jehovah's
Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not
form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and
the United States are the only countries where the number of active
Witness publishers exceeds half a million. However, there has been a
decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5%
per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2% - 3% per annum since 1999.
Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical
variation. The official published membership statistics only
include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' members,
who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted
reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected
in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 17
million attending in 2007.
Recruitment
Jehovah's
Witnesses mainly gain new members through favorable response to their
preaching work. In particular a schedule of door-to-door canvassing is
required where Witnesses distribute Watchtower literature and acquire
donations. This is often considered a nuisance, to the extent that
various localities have introduced rules restricting this: for example
a requirement for a license “to solicit” before distributing literature
and asking for donations. In many cases in the United States such rules
have been deemed contrary to the First Amendment to the United States
Constitution and struck down.
Organizational structure
Jehovah's
Witnesses are led by a Governing Body located at the Watchtower
headquarters. The Watchtower Society was incorporated as Zion’s Watch
Tower Tract Society in 1884. Its directors served as the central
Governing Body overseeing their preaching work. This initial Governing
Body was composed of five men and two women. As of 1971 the Governing
Body consisted of the Board of Directors of the Watch Tower Bible and
Tract Society of Pennsylvania, a body of seven men, and the agenda of
the Governing Body was set by the President of the Watch Tower Society,
who was also a member. The Governing Body was enlarged by Nathan H.
Knorr to include other members of the Society in 1971, and its
membership rose to eleven men. In that year, the chairmanship of the
group began to rotate annually.
The Governing Body,
through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the
operation of the 112 branches throughout the world. Members volunteer
to operate these facilities. Each branch appoints circuit overseers who
travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within
each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the
congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for
congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the
congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant,
requiring the approval of higher leadership.
Elders are
prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious
instruction and spiritual guidance. Ministerial servants generally
assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both roles are
unpaid, but circuit and district overseers receive a small financial
living allowance. All baptized Witnesses consider themselves to be
ordained ministers, and are expected to be able to provide religious
instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for
responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming
ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations the roles of
women are minimal: they cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants,
though they carry out some of the preaching work, mostly helping others
in the congregation to become more regular in preaching.
The
legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses include corporations that
represent the religion in legal matters. Most well known is the Watch
Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 2000, three new
non-profit US corporations were organized:
Christian Congregation of
Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. coordinates all service (i.e., preaching)
activities, including door-to-door preaching, circuit and district
conventions, etc.
Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc.
coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service,
including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers.
Kingdom
Support Services, Inc. controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and
other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles.
Jehovah's Witness administrations in the other countries throughout the world vary.
Publications
The
publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible
and Tract Society of Pennsylvania engages in extensive publication
work. In addition to their two magazines— 'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!'
— they also publish many brochures, tracts, books, Bible maps, and
encyclopedias including the New World Translation of the Holy
Scriptures.
The Watchtower has been published since 1879.This
magazine is published twice a month and is now available in 167
languages. It is the Witnesses' main journal and its articles are
considered authoritative. It features articles primarily dealing with
Bible topics and interpretation. Organizational news and biographies of
various members are also occasionally included. Beginning in 2008, only
the first issue of each month will be distributed to the general
public. The second issue of each month will not be offered to the
public but will contain congregational study articles and other
inter-organizational information.
Awake!, a general interest
magazine, has a wider scope than the Watchtower, publishing articles on
science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier
titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and
Consolation (1937–1946). It is now published monthly and is available
in 78 languages.
New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a
translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee,
last revised in 1984 in English. It extensively uses the name Jehovah,
an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the
Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is
available in 69 Languages. The translators have opted to remain
anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of
the movement.
Jehovah's Witnesses print all publications at 8
branch offices located around the world. Publications are offered free
of charge world-wide.
Beliefs and practices
Jehovah's
Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls. Jehovah's Witnesses
consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, to be the
inspired word of God. They do interpret some scriptures literally, but
they believe that biblical writers and characters often employed
symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism. Thus, they insist
that they are not 'fundamentalists' who they feel are in error in
taking a strictly literal view of the Bible.They hold that the Bible
alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation
of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the
responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's
Witnesses view God as the creator of everything and supreme being, the
sovereign of the universe. They believe that God's name is Jehovah (an
English form of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton YHWH, that incorporates the
vowels of the term Adonai ("Lord")), and that its use is a requirement
for true worship. Jesus is believed to be God's first creation, and
thus is considered to be an independent entity from God who was used by
Him to create everything else. Jesus, literally the only-begotten Son
of God, is considered to be the archangel Michael and received his life
from God. He is the only means by which to approach God in prayer, and
is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind. They believe
that Jesus Christ is head of the Congregation, and all must obey him.
His role as mediator of the "new covenant" is limited to those going to
heaven to rule along with Christ, whose number totals 144,000.
The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live on a renewed
paradise on Earth. They believe that Jesus did not die on a cross but
on a "torture stake". The holy spirit is not a person but is God's
active force. The soul is the person itself, not an immortal
non-physical entity that exists inside the body. Thus, souls of
deceased persons are considered dead, and death itself is a state of
non-existence with no consciousness. Hades or Sheol is the designated
common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery
torment. The year 1914 marks the return of Christ, which is understood
to have occurred invisibly in heaven. At that time Christ became
Earth's king and the "last days" began. In 1918, those of the 144,000
who had died were resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life.
Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are
instantaneously resurrected to heavenly life. Armageddon is considered
to be imminent. After false religion is destroyed, governments also
face destruction. Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be
destroyed with no hope of resurrection. The fate of some, such as small
children or the mentally ill, remains to be decided by God. After
Armageddon, an unknown number of people, both righteous and
unrighteous, who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected,
with the prospect of living forever in paradise.
The
name "Jehovah" is one English version of the Hebrew
Tetragrammaton.Their view of morality reflects the usual conservative
Christian views, with some differences. Homosexuality and premarital
sex are considered sins. Abortion is considered murder. Modesty is
heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. Gambling is strictly
forbidden. The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is
considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged
to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his
children. Marriages must be monogamous. Blood is not to be eaten,
stored or transfused. Medical procedures involving certain blood
fractions are left to conscience.
Practices associated with
nationalism or other religions are avoided. Jehovah’s Witnesses believe
only their religion represents true Christianity and expressly teach
that no other religion is Christian. Weddings, anniversaries, and
funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations and
religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Easter and Christmas
are regarded as unchristian and are not observed. Witnesses are perhaps
best known for the efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the
world. They do this mainly by visiting people house to house, but also
in a variety of other ways. They use Watchtower publications to explain
their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide
variety of books, magazines and other publications, with some
publications being available in over 400 languages. Witnesses are
encouraged to devote as much time as possible in preaching activities.
College and university education is not encouraged because it makes it
difficult to balance his or her spiritual responsibilities. They are
told to ask themselves questions, such as,"How might being immersed in
an atmosphere of intense competition and selfish materialism affect
you?" A similar question cites a study stating that in some
universities "Drugs and alcohol are used freely, and promiscuity is the
rule" and asks "might living there thwart your efforts to remain
morally clean?" But if they must attend a university, they are
encouraged to "keep yourself spiritually strong." Young Witnesses are
reminded that "some youths who have been obliged to attend university
have even managed to be pioneers (full time Witness ministers) by
choosing a schedule of courses that made that possible."
Jehovah's
Witnesses are politically neutral. They feel that their allegiance
belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government.
Therefore they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing
nationalistic songs believing that such an act would be tantamount to
worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including
the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as
these do not violate what they view as God's law. The political
neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to
participate in military service, even when such is of a compulsory
nature, and by their detachment from secular politics. Aid work after
large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work,
though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money
are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid.
The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members and
rebuilding Kingdom Halls, but usually, assistance is provided to
non-members in need near the area in which they are working.
Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims
during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees. Witnesses
have also had an active share in the relief work of Hurricane Katrina
in the United States of America. The preaching work is promoted to
members as a form of humanitarian effort by purportedly giving people
hope for the future based on God's Kingdom. Members are encouraged to
participate in the preaching work and to donate to the Watchtower
Society's "Worldwide Work" fund.
Their most important annual
event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the
Memorial") held after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on
the Hebrew calendar (usually in March or April). Onlookers do not
partake of the emblems representing Christ's flesh and blood unless
they believe they have the heavenly hope. Typically, in most
congregations no one partakes since almost all Witnesses today believe
their hope is to live on a paradise earth. Weekly meetings are held in
buildings called Kingdom Halls and in private homes, featuring a
variety of discourses. Elders and ministerial servants deliver the
majority of these. Training in public speaking is provided for all
members to aid them in their preaching activities. Larger conventions
are also held periodically in special Assembly Halls or in rented
conference facilities.
Congregational discipline
Jehovah's
Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline
administered by elders in the congregation. The determination of guilt
or innocence is made by a panel of judges comprised of local
congregation elders. A variety of discipline can be used, from a
restriction of duties performed in the congregation to excommunication,
known as disfellowshipping, and shunning by the congregation. Members
who are disfellowshipped have an opportunity to regain membership.
Congregational
discipline is administered by congregation elders thought to be in
harmony with Bible principles and edicts. There are various forms of
discipline that be used to counsel or attempt to correct individuals
within the congregation:
Marking is employed when a member
persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural
principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant
disfellowshipping and shunning. If the conduct of the individual is
considered a "spiritual danger" to the members of the congregation, a
talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the
individual), thus 'marking' the member in the minds of those who know
of the conduct, based on their understanding of 2 Thessalonians 3:6,
13-15. Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction
outside of formal worship settings would be minimized.
Reproof
involves sins which are more serious than those for which one would be
"marked". Reproof is given before all who have knowledge of the
transgression.
The most severe discipline is disfellowshipping.
The factor determining whether an individual would be disfellowshipped
or not is based on the Judicial Committee's assessment of whether the
wrongdoer shows evidence of repentance by his actions. The Judicial
Committee asks probing questions and reviews actions of the member
being considered, ascertaining which scriptural law has been violated
in consultation with guidelines provided by the Governing Body. There
are over thirty different classifications for which a person can be
disfellowshipped. Baptized members who oppose essential Scriptural
doctrine, or organizational teachings may be disfellowshipped for
apostasy after repeated admonitions. Once the decision to disfellowship
has been made, a person has seven days to appeal. If no legitimate
appeal is made, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the
congregation by letting them know that the person "is no longer one of
Jehovah's Witnesses". If a member does appeal the decision a special
Judicial committee is formed of at least 3 different elders, typically
from neighboring congregations. After a member has been
disfellowshipped, all congregation members avoid all association with
that person. Exceptions are made in business and immediate family
household situations. If the disfellowshipped person is living in the
same home with other baptized family members, religious matters are not
discussed, with the exception of minors, for whose training parents are
still responsible. Disfellowshipped family members outside the home are
shunned. Disfellowshipped members can attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but
are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.
Members can officially leave the religion by writing a letter stating
that they no longer wish to be known as Jehovah's Witnesses,
'disassociating' from the congregation; Thereafter, they are treated in
the same way as those who are disfellowshipped. In rare cases elders
may also determine a member has disassociated himself by their actions.
Both result in shunning. If a disassociated or disfellowshipped
individual requests reinstatement to the congregation, a Judicial
Committee, usually consisting of the elders who sat on the original
committee if available, is formed to review the evidence.
Disfellowshipped ones must demonstrate that they no longer practice the
conduct for which they were expelled from the congregation and they
show genuine remorse for the actions for which they were shunned. Once
a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the
congregation that the disfellowshipped member is once again one of
Jehovah's Witnesses. Each year, the elders make an attempt to remind
disfellowshipped ones of the steps they can take to qualify for
reinstatement.
The current procedure that is followed when
allegations of abuse are reported is based on a strict application of
the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15: "No single witness should rise up
against a man respecting any error or any sin, in the case of any sin
that he may commit. At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of
three witnesses the matter should stand good" (New World Translation).
This is not understood that there must be two witnesses to each event;
the Bible only states "two or three" witnesses. If there were two
incidents, and there were a different witness to each incident, or if
there were a witness along with other evidence (DNA testing or other
forensic evidence, or certain circumstantial evidence, such as
pregnancy), then such a requirement would be met. If an allegation of
child abuse is made, and the alleged perpetrator denies it, the local
congregational elders will investigate to see if there can be any
others who can substantiate the claim. If there are none, the elders do
not disfellowship the accused individual and no request is made for
police to investigate. The religion will act only on cases where there
have been two witnesses to child sex abuse to protect their
congregation. However, according to the Jehovah's Witness Office of
Public Information: "Even if the elders cannot take congregational
action, they are expected to report the allegation to the branch office
of Jehovah's Witnesses in their country, if local privacy laws permit.
In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be
required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated
allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply.
Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the
authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so." In 1997 it
was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known
to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible
position in the congregation" (e.g. serving as elders, ministerial
servants, or pioneers). A similar stand is taken if a woman is known to
be a child molester. In general, members are not punished arbitrarily
for taking matters regarding the child sex abuse to the police or
authorities.
Matters such as these are not made public to the
congregation to keep elder/member communications confidential, and to
avoid unnecessary damage to individual dignity. This would be upheld
even if the crime was committed years before, or prior to the person's
becoming a Witness. The general policy is not premised as punishment to
the offender, but seen rather, by the religion, as a means of
protecting the congregation's members; Therefore, secular law
enforcement may not always be contacted to perform an investigation
when criminal allegations are raised.
Jehovah's Witnesses and blood
Jehovah's
Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood. The
official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses regards blood as sacred and
rejects allogeneic and pre-operative autologous transfusions of whole
blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma. This is based on an
understanding of the Biblical admonition to " abstain from ... blood,"
based on Acts 15:28, 29, and also on Leviticus 17:11,12, "For the life
of the flesh is in the blood ... No soul of you shall eat blood," and
of Genesis 9:3, 4, which they understand to be the first instance of
"the Bible’s clear prohibition against taking blood into the body."
Although accepted by a majority of Jehovah's Witnesses, evidence
indicates a minority does not wholly endorse this doctrine.
Baptized
Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood are subject to organized
communal shunning. However, it is a personal decision on how their "own
blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical
test, or current therapy." This is qualified by their understanding
that "collecting, storing, and transfusing of blood directly
contradicts what is said in Leviticus and Deuteronomy," so their
position is they do not "store for transfusion our blood that should be
‘poured out." Of course, in current medical practice, whole blood
transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used
instead. While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells,
platelets or plasma, they may accept any fractions made from these
components. However, if a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of
that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary
component" it may be objectionable to them but is permissible.
Jehovah's
Witnesses have highlighted the dangers of blood transfusions. Bloodless
surgery and medicine is a viable and life-saving option for these
patients and those wary of the safety of the blood supply, and it is
safe for a growing number of surgical and medical conditions, except
for acute leukemia and traumatic injury. "Bloodless procedures have
proven to be safer than blood transfusion because they help eliminate
complications resulting from transfusions such as immunosuppression,
infection, diseases from emerging pathogens for which our blood supply
is not yet tested," said Dr. Ford. "The hospital stay is also shorter
for our bloodless patients, a cost savings for the patient and the
institution," she continues. Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia is
one of the pioneering centers for bloodless medicine and surgery. The
bloodless team at Pennsylvania Hospital has saved the lives of many
Jehovah's Witness patients who otherwise would not have received care.
"We see patients from all over the country who come to us for our
expertise in bloodless medicine. The needs of the Jehovah's Witness
community have helped us develop practices that can not only save their
lives, but can also benefit the entire patient community," explained
Dr. Ford. Witness representatives have stated that plasma volume
expanders are often sufficient to take care of various medical
emergency situations. However, Witnesses explain that their objections
to blood transfusions are for religious reasons.
A growing
number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and
surgery. A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's
Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the
dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.
Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with
Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of
bloodless techniques and therapies.
Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to premature deaths due to blood loss.
Ethical
concerns in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has
sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against
family wishes. Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical
violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among
Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views
within the religion. Witness leaders have defended these policies as
obedience to scripture and religious conscience.
Opposition to Jehovah's Witnesses
Throughout
their history, their beliefs, doctrines, and practices have met with
controversy. Political and religious animosity against them has at
times led to the point of mob action and government oppression,
including being among the groups targeted in the Holocaust.
They
have also received widespread criticism from leaders of other faiths.
Hostility from fundamentalist and evangelical Christians has been
particularly virulent; members of such denominations, often
characterize Jehovah's Witnesses as a cult. Most 'ordinary' Christians
are unable to form any eucumenical sharing with Jehovah's Witnesses, as
the Witnesses see themselves as the only Christians and brand all
others as 'false'.
Controversies involving Jehovah's Witnesses
Witnesses
teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually
diverged, in a Great Apostasy (2 Thessalonians 2:6-12), from the
original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus most of the
doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream
Christianity, and are considered heresy by most mainstream Christian
scholars. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate
to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's
Witnesses' rejection of the Trinity. In contrast with trinitarian
doctrine, they believe that Jesus was not God in a human body, but
rather that he was created by God. The beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses
about hell, the immortality of the soul, the return of Jesus to the
earth, and salvation are also controversial. However, the Jehovah's
Witnesses are not the only religious group to have held views like this.
Some
scholars have criticized the New World Translation, the translation of
the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has
changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation
contains a number of errors and inaccuracies (a position the Society
claims the opponents have not been able to prove). Interestingly, the
Jehovah's Witnesses, while holding the Roman Catholic Church as false
and in error, have based their version of the Bible on the catholic
canon, that is,the 66 books of the Old and New Testaments, with no apocrypha or other excluded scripture.
A
number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower
Bible & Tract Society. Critics state that the Watchtower Society
has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over
the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel" used by
God to continually dispense truth.
Raymond Franz, a former
member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the
Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their
requirements are inconsistent and contradictory. However, to Witnesses
blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue, it is what it
represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been
shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the
principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood. When the
blood has been drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to
God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain
minute traces of blood.
Critics have also argued that various
Witness policies and practices — including the treatment of members who
dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the
congregation — limit the ability of members to exercise personal
freedom. Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be
exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles."
And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good
and bad.” However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God
uses to interpret the scriptures, and to instruct members
about what is good and bad.
Some countries such as
Uzbekistan, Belarus, and the city of Moscow have opposed the building
of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls) and the holding of large
conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times
specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more
mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In
some legal cases, such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de
St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village), disputes that have
apparently been about appropriate land use have come out of religious
bias, according to Jehovah's Witnesses' claims.
Links:
Watchtower
JW-Media Site of Public Information