Cross Denominational Mission
"Unitarian"
can mean 'those that hold a Unitarian theological belief' and 'those
that belong to a Unitarian church'. The two are very different. This is
because many Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists have moved away
from the traditional Christian roots of Unitarianism. In the 1890s the
American Unitarian Association began to allow non-Christians and
non-theistic individuals to be part of their fellowship. So people
who hold no Unitarian Christian belief can be called "Unitarians," only
because they are members of churches that belong to the American
Unitarian Association. By 1930 the non-theistic members outnumbered the
theological Unitarians not only in America but also in some Unitarian
churches in the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, and other countries.
At this level it is only a liberal secular philosophy. Recent (post
1980) moves are re-strengthening the Christian religious origins of
Unitarianism.
Early
controversies over the nature of Christ broke out at Rome during the
papacy of Victor I (189–199AD). The so-called ‘Monarchian
controversy,’ originated in a revolt against the Logos theology of
Justin and
other apologists, who had spoken of Jesus as a second god. Such
language was disturbing to some as Justin’s language
seemed to promote ditheism. The view was defended by
Hippolytus and others, who thought it necessary to think of the
Father and the Logos as distinct ‘persons’. This rejection was probably the start of "unitarian" thinking.
There was a
huge amount of debate, argument, division, disagreement and
battle over the differences of opinion that followed on from this: the
Trinitarian verses the Unitarian. The story is very long and
complicated (and interesting!), too long to go into here fully. I hope
we can cover it on this site sometime in the future.
Unitarianism in England
Unitarians
and anti-Trinitarians were for all intents and purposes the same (this
is not so today) however, at the time of the Reformation many were
executed for their opinions: Edward
Wightman being burned at the stake twice (!) in 1612. In many of these cases the anti-Trinitarian sentiments
seem to have come from Holland; the last two executions followed the
dedication to James I of the Latin version of the Racovian Catechism in 1609. The upsurge of Socinian belief, held by men like
Falkland and Chillingworth, led to attempts to outlaw Socinian books in 1640. However, the ordinance of 1648 (an act of law) made denial of the
Trinity a capital offence. It was unused law: Cromwell
intervened in the cases of Paul Best (1590–1657) and John Biddle
(1616–1662). Biddle
held several Socinian Conventicles (unlawful religious meetings) in London; as well as his
own material he republished the Racovian Catechism in 1652, and the
Life of
Socinus in 1653. Thomas Firmin (1632–1697), Biddle's associate
and
philanthropist, and a friend of Tillotson, held more Sabellian
views, was inspired by Stephen Nye (1648–1719), a clergyman. Firmin wrote
and published a large number of controversial tracts between 1690–1699.
The
Socinian controversy, caused by Biddle and others, led to the
Arian controversy of Samuel Clarke's Doctrine of
the Trinity which was published in 1712. Some sixty odd years earlier
John Knowles was an active Arian in
Chester. Arian or quasi-Arian views abounded in the
18th century, both within the Church and among dissenters. The name
"Unitarian" first appeared in 1682, being in the title of the
'Brief History' document of 1687. It was deliberatly used to describe
all
who, rejected the Trinity, and held the singularity of God. Firmin
later founded Unitarian societies within
the Church. The first Unitarian preacher was
Thomas Emlyn (1663–1741) who founded a congregation in London in 1705.
This was contrary to the Toleration Act of 1689, which outlawed all who
preached or wrote against the Trinity. Emlyn also found himself in
trouble in Dublin.
In
1689
a number of Presbyterians and Independents had merged but this came
apart in 1693. Differences in administration (rather than basic doctrine) led
to the theological liberals adopting the Presbyterian name. At this time
(1690–1710) many of the Presbyterian chapels fell into the hands of Congregationalists. Most of the Unitarian chapels were
Independent foundations, and remained so. The
liberal outlook of dissenting academies (universities and colleges) encouraged new
ideas.
The Salters' Hall conference of 1719 expounding the
views of James Pierce (1673–1726) of Exeter, suggested letting dissenting
congregations determine their own orthodoxy. The Baptists
had already broken from the common doctrine.
Leadership in the advocacy of a purely Humanitarian Christology came
mostly from Independents, like Nathaniel Lardner (1684–1768),
Caleb Fleming (1698–1779), Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) and Thomas
Belsham (1750–1829). Well respected 'establishment' figures were also
espousing these views: Isaac Newton was anti-Trinitarian; possibly
Unitarian.
In 1773 the secession of Theophilus Lindsey (1723–1808) from the Anglican Church, (following
the failure of the Feathers petition to parliament [1772] for relief
from subscription) led to the
formation of a distinct Unitarian denomination. Lindsey's secession was
preceded in Ireland by
that of William Robertson D.D. (1705–1783), who is acknowledged as "the
father of Unitarian nonconformity". It was followed by other clerical
secessions, mostly of men who left the ministry, and Lindsey's hope of
a Unitarian movement close to or alongside the Anglican Church was frustrated. In
time his type of theology superseded Arianism in the majority of
dissenting congregations.
The Toleration Act was
amended in 1779 by substituting belief in Scripture for belief in the
Anglican (doctrinal) articles. In 1813 the penal acts against denial
of the Trinity were repealed. In 1825 the British and Foreign Unitarian
Association was formed as an amalgamation of three older societies, for
literature (established 1791), mission work (established 1806) and civil rights (established 1818). Legal
challenges
were made on properties held by Unitarian Trusts and Societies dating from prior to the
1813 Penal Acts.
The Wolverhampton Chapel case began in 1817; the Hewley
Fund case in 1830; both were decided against the Unitarians in 1842.
Appeal to parliament resulted in the Dissenters' Chapels Act of 1844:
this allowed continued use as a place of public worship as long as
trusts did not specify doctrines.
In the second half of the 19th century Unitarianism based on determinist philosophy
(in the Priestley-Belsham tradition), was increasingly
influenced by Channing (an American), whose works were published in
numerous editions and owed a wide circulation to Robert
Spears (1825–1899). Another American influence, which reduced the
rigid (although limited) supernaturalism of Belsham and his successors,
was
that of Theodore Parker (1810–1860). In England the teaching of James
Martineau (1805–1900), which was resisted at first, later became a
profound influence; assisted by the influence of John James Tayler
(1797–1869) and of John Hamilton Thom (1808–1894). English
Unitarianism produced some remarkable scholars: John Kenrick
(1788–1877), James Yates (1789–1871), Samuel Sharpe (1799–1881) to name
but three. There were
few notable preachers: George Harris (1794–1859) was the
exception. Ministerial training was at Manchester
College, Oxford (whose origin was the academy of
Richard Frankland, begun 1670 and was supported by the Unitarian
Movement); the Unitarian Home Missionary College
(founded in Manchester in 1854 by John Relly Beard, D.D., and William
Gaskell); and the Presbyterian College, Carmarthen. There were many
titles published as Unitarian periodical literature, whose influence
and opinions were felt widely.Unitarianism also produced
the notable English family of politicians, Chamberlain: Joseph Chamberlain,
Austen Chamberlain, and Neville Chamberlain, and the Courtauld
industrialist dynasty.
Unitarianism in Scotland
Famous
is the execution at Edinburgh of Thomas
Aikenhead in 1697, convicted of blaspheming the Trinity. The works of
John
Taylor, D.D. (1694–1761) on original sin and atonement had large
influence in the east of Scotland, as we learn from Robert Burns; and
such men as William Dalrymple, D.D. (1723–1814) and William M'Gill,
D.D. (1732–1807), along with other "moderates", who were under
suspicion of various heresies. Unitarianism has always been more
subtle in
Scotland. The only congregation of old foundation is at Edinburgh,
founded in 1776 by a secession from one of the "fellowship societies"
formed by James Fraser, of Brea (1639–1699). The missionary efforts of
Richard Wright (1764–1836) and George Harris (1794–1859) although
enthusiastic at the time, had no lasting effect. The Scottish Unitarian
Association was founded in 1813, by Thomas Southwood Smith,
M.D. and others.
Unitarianism in Ireland
Debate over the Trinity exploded
in Ireland following the prosecution at
Dublin of Thomas Emlyn in 1703 (see English Unitarianism above),
resulting in
imprisonment, for rejecting the deity of Jesus Christ. Almost as a
direct result of this, the Belfast
Society was founded in 1705 for theological 'discussion' by
Presbyterian
ministers in the north, which resulted in the creation a body of
opinion opposed to the Westminster standards (Anglican re-assertion of
'high' church doctrines). Toleration of
dissent in Ireland was then granted in 1719 without the
requirement of any doctrinal subscription. The following year a
movement against
subscription was established: the General Synod of Ulster, which led to
the creation in 1725 of a presbytery specifically for those who
advocated non-subscription, headed by
John Abernethy, D.D. This
Antrim presbytery was excluded by a Canonical Act in 1726 from
jurisdiction, though not
from communion. During the next hundred years it exercised
great influence on the rest of the church and the synod; but a
mission of Scottish Seceders in 1742
produced a counter-action. The Antrim Presbytery gradually became
Arian; the
Southern Association of presbyteries was called the Synod of
Munster and the beliefs and theology spread in varying degrees to
them. By 1783 ten of the fourteen
presbyteries in the General Synod had made subscription optional.
Half a century later, the
synod's code of 1824 left "soundness in the faith" to be ascertained by
subscription or by examination. Henry Cooke,
D.D. (1788–1868) directed all his effort against this compromise,
and defeated his Arian opponent, Henry Montgomery, LL.D.
(1788–1865) in 1829. Montgomery led a secession which formed the
Remonstrant Synod in 1830, comprising three presbyteries. They maintained two theological chairs in Belfast until 1889, where John Scott Porter
(1801–1880) pioneered biblical criticism. After 1900 Irish Unitarians sent their
students to England for their theological education, though in certain
respects their views and practices remained more conservative than
those of their English brethren.
In 1910 the
Antrim Presbytery, Remonstrant Synod and Synod of Munster united as the
General Synod of the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland,
with 38 congregations and some mission stations.
Unitarianism in United States
Unitarianism
in
the United States development similarly to
England, and passed through the stages of Arminianism, Arianism, to
rationalism and a modernism based on an open-minded acceptance of the
results of the comparative study of all religions. In the early
18th century Arminianism presented itself in New England, East Coast
states, and
sporadically elsewhere. This tendency was largely accelerated by a
revolt against the "Great Awakening" of protestant evangelical activity
under Jonathan Edwards and
George Whitefield. Before the War of Independence Arianism
showed itself in individual instances, and French influences were
widespread in the direction of deism, though they were not organized
into any definite doctrines by religious bodies. Unitarianism developed
steadily afterwards.
Unitarianism in other Countries
Many other
countries had strong traditions and long histories of, Unitarianism:
Easter European Countries, in particular Poland and Hungary. A number
of enclaves exist in Europe. Countries which were exposed to Islam had
a tendancy towards Unitarian thinking.
Unitarian Christian Principles of faith
There are essentially two strands:
Biblical (or Evangelical) Unitarians
hold similar beliefs to other evangelical Christians: apart from
their rejection of the Trinity.
Liberal
Unitarian Christians (also called "Unitarian
Christians") do not believe in
the Trinity, the Virgin Birth, the deity of Christ, or Biblical infallibility.
Neither group have a creed or formal statements of faith that must be believed in order to be accepted
into membership, or fellowship with other Unitarian Societies. However, they have set
out some basic principles that distinguish their faith from other
Christian groups:
the belief in One God and the oneness or unity of God. the life and teachings of Jesus Christ is the exemplar model for living ones' own life. that reason, rational thought, science, and philosophy together with religion and faith are not mutually exclusive. that
man has the ability to exercise free will in a responsible,
constructive and ethical manner with the assistance of religion. the
belief that human nature in its present condition is neither inherently
corrupt nor depraved, but capable of both good and evil, as God
intended. the conviction that no religion can claim an absolute monopoly on the Holy Spirit or theological truth. the
belief that the works of the Bible are inspired by God, but were
written and edited by humans and therefore subject to human error. the
rejection of traditional doctrines that they believe malign God's
character or veil the true nature and mission of Jesus Christ, such as
the doctrine of predestination, eternal damnation, the Trinity, and the
vicarious sacrifice or satisfaction theory of the Atonement.
Most
Unitarian Christians say that Jesus, his followers
and disciples would today be defined as Unitarian Christians, and that
Unitarian Christianity is the form of Christianity most closely
following the direct teachings of Jesus. However, Unitarian Christians
respect the beliefs of others and do not believe that the Unitarian
Christian way is the only way to follow God's will. Unitarian
Christians believe Jesus did not claim to be God nor did his teachings
hint at his divinity or the existence of a triune God. Unitarian
Christians generally do not believe that Jesus was conceived in the
womb of a virgin. Some do not believe Jesus performed miracles to the extent reported in the
Gospels. Unitarian Christians give the most weight regarding the
accounts of Jesus, his character, and his life to the four canonical
Gospels (Mark, Mathew, Luke, and John). Most also accept other sources
of information about Jesus including newly discovered Gospels that were
not included in the original canon of the Bible (e.g. Nag Hammadi
Library).
Unitarian Christians reject the doctrine of some
Christian denominations that God chooses to redeem or save only those
certain individuals that accept the creeds of, or affiliate with a
specific Church or religion, or corruption of the
mass of humanity. They generally do not believe that God demands
belief in certain principles of faith and that no good works in life
are required to be morally righteous.
Most contemporary
Unitarian Christians believe that the mixing of state, politics and
religion is not acceptable: one's personal moral convictions will guide
their political activities and a secular society is the most viable,
just, and fair society.
Groups and Associations
Unitarianism
developed in the 1600s during the Protestant era of the
evolution of the Christian church. Unitarian strongholds arose in
Eastern Europe, Britain and the North Eastern parts of the United
States. Unitarianism was independant and in the congregational
tradition: each congregation
governed itself. These
congregations did recognise and worked with other similar
congregations, joining together as formal associations of
churches. The largest and most influencial of these are The American
Unitarian Association, formed in 1825. The Unitarian Universalist
Association (UUA) formed in 1961 when the American Unitarian
Association
and the Universalist Church of America merged forming the largest
organization of
Unitarians in the USA. The UUA is no longer an explicitly Christian
organization and does not focus on the core teachings of Jesus Christ
or Christianity.
Several Unitarian organizations still hold
Christianity as their central theme including the Unitarian
Universalist Christian Fellowship (UUCF, an affiliate of the UUA), the
General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches (GAUFCC) of
the United Kingdom, and the Unitarian Christian Association (UCA, an
affiliate of the GAUFCC). The American Unitarian Conference (AUC), formed in 2000; it's stated
goal is to 'formulate and promote classical Unitarian-based, unifying
religious convictions, which balance the needs of members with a
practical approach to inclusion and progressive free thought'.
Ecumenical Relations
Unitarian
belief almost always means severance with Christianity as
understood by the
Nicene-Chalcedonian churches (Anglican, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and
most
Protestants). Unitarianism is outside these
traditions, it has a tradition of its own: Unitarianism, parallel to
but different from Trinitarianism.
Anglicans, Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants insist on Trinitarian
belief as an essential doctrine of Christianity, and necessary to
continuity with the historical Christian faith.
Occasionally,
especially among Protestants, Trinitarian groups have grown
friendly to or incorporated Unitarianism. Friendliness toward
unitarianism has sometimes gone alongside anti-Catholicism. In
some churches non-trinitarian or unitarian belief has been partially
embraced,
and tolerated by others for 'pragmatic reasons'. This
was the case in the English Presbyterian Church, and in the
(American) Congregational Church in East Coast states late in the 18th
century. The
Restoration Movement later attempted to create a compatible relation
between Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Seventh Day Baptists,
Adventists and some Apostolic Faith Churches succeeded in this. The
Unitarian tendency in these
denominations is likely due to intrinsic skepticism about Catholism as
a reliable guide to Christian tradition and doctrine.
In some denominations, this openness to Unitarianism
within traditionally Trinitarian churches has been inspired by
ecumenical motives. There are cases too, where some denominations have
been accused (from within and without) of abandoning their standards
and beliefs to work alongside Unitarians. The history of Unitarianism
is one of division and controversy: in some quarters it still is.
Links
General Assembly of Unitarian & Free Christian Churches (UK)
Unitarian College Manchester (UK)
Unitarian History Society (UK)
Unitarian Societies (UK)
Scottish Unitarian Fellowship (UK)
Scottish Unitarian Association (UK)
Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations (USA)
First Unitarian Church (USA)